Obesity and osteoporosis
Keywords:
Adipose Tissue, Bone Mineral Density, Obesity, Overweight, Skeletal Microarchitecture
Abstract
Osteoporosis is the most common skeletal disease and a major public health problem. It affects around 1/3 of postmenopausal women, an incidence that is expected to double in the next thirty years due to the increase in life expectancy. Besides a significant increase in morbidity and mortality, osteoporosis and its complication i.e. the low energy fracture, also result in a considerable and continuously growing economic burden for healthcare systems. Understanding the factors involved in the manifestation of the disease and its complications is crucial for the development of disease prevention and treatment programs. On the other hand, obesity has become a global epidemic and obesity related medical conditions also infer a tremendous economic cost. The relationship between obesity and bone metabolism is complex and not fully understood. Several mechanical, biochemical and hormonal mechanisms have been suggested to explain the association between the adipose tissue and bone diseases. Most studies indicate a positive correlation between Body Mass Index (BMI) and bone density. However, the effect of obesity on the bone is probably not favourable in terms of skeletal micro-architecture, whereas low-grade systemic inflammation and specific peptides and adipokines seem to play a crucial role. The study of these factors and the interpretation of the events arising from the interaction between adipose tissue and bone metabolism seem to constitute an emerging field of research in the area of bone metabolism.
Downloads
Download data is not yet available.
References
1. National Institutes of Health. Consensus Development Panel on Osteoporosis Prevention, Diagnosis, and Therapy Osteoporosis prevention, diagnosis, and therapy. JAMA 2001, 285, 785–795
2. Kanis JA, Melton III LJ, Christiansen C, Johnston CC, Khaltaev N. The diagnosis of osteoporosis. Journal of bone and mineral research. 1994;9(8):1137–41
3. World Health Organization. Assessment of osteoporosis at the primary health care level:summary report of a WHO Scientific Group. World Health Organization. 2007
4. Osteoporosis or Low Bone Mass in Older Adults: United States, 2017–2018 Neda Sarafrazi, Ph.D., Edwina A. Wambogo, Ph.D., M.S., M.P.H., R.D., and John A. Shepherd, Ph.D., NCHS Data Brief ,No. 405, March 2021
5. US Department of Health and Human Services. Bone Health and Osteoporosis: A Report of the Surgeon General; US Department of Health and Human Services: Rockville, MD, USA, 2004.
6. World Health Organization Global. Health Observatory, Obesity:situation and trends. 2017
7. Obesity and Overweight. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight
8. European Association for the Study of Obesity. Facts &Statistics:Definitions of overweight and obese. 2017
9. Samuel L, Borrell LN. The effect of body mass index on optimal vitamin D status in U.S. adults: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2006. Ann Epidemiol 2013;23:409-414
10. Walsh JS, Evans AL, Bowles S et al. Free 25-hydroxyvitamin D is low in obesity, but there are no adverse associations with bone health. Am J Clin Nutr 2016;103:1465-1471.
11. Macdonald HM, Mavroeidi A, Barr RJ, Black AJ, Fraser WD, Reid DM. Vitamin D status in postmenopausal women living at higher latitudes in the UK in relation to bone health, overweight, sunlight exposure and dietary vitamin D. Bone 2008;42(5):996-1003.
12. Ardawi MS, Qari MH, Rouzi AA, Maimani AA, Raddadi RM. Vitamin D status in relation to obesity, bone mineral density, bone turnover markers and vitamin D receptor genotypes in healthy Saudi pre-and postmenopausal women. Osteoporosis international 2011;22(2):463-75
13. Rajakumar K, Fernstrom JD, Holick MF, Janosky JE, Greenspan SL. Vitamin D status and response to vitamin D3 in obese vs. non-obese African American Children. Obesity 2008;16(1):90-5.
14. Wortsman J, Matsuoka LY, Chen TC, Lu Z, Holick MF. Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. The American journal of clinical nutrition 2000;72(3):690-3.
15. Evans AL, Paggiosi MA, Eastell R, Walsh JS. Bone density, microstructure and strength in obese and normal weight men and women in younger and older adulthood. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2015;30(5):920-8
16. Leeners B, Geary N, Τobler P, Asarian L. Ovarian hormones and obesity. Human Reproduction Update 2017;23(3):300-321.
17. Ionova-Martin SS, Do SH, Barth HD, Szadkowska M, Porter AE, Ager III JW, Ager Jr JW, Alliston T, Vaisse C, Ritchie RO. Reduced size-independent mechanical properties of cortical bone in high-fat diet-induced obesity. Bone 2010;46(1):217-25
18. Halade GV, El Jamali A, Williams PJ, Fajardo RJ, Fernandes G. Obesity-mediated inflammatory microenvironment stimulates osteoclastogenesis and bone loss in mice. Experimental gerontology. 2011 Jan 1;46(1):43-52.
19. Sekiya I, Larson BL, Vuoristo JT, Cui JG, Prockop DJ. Adipogenic differentiation of human adult stem cells from bone marrow stroma (MSCs). J Bone Miner Res 2004;19:256-64.
20. Schilling T, Kuffner R, Klein-Hitpass L, Zimmer R, Jakob F, Schutze N. Microarray analyses of transdifferentiated mesenchymal stem cells. J Cell Biochem 2008; 103:413-33
21. Menagh PJ, Turner RT, Jump DB, Wong CP, Lowry MB, Yakar S, Rosen CJ, Iwaniec UT. Growth hormone regulates the balance between bone formation and bone marrow adiposity. J Bone Miner Res 2010;25:757-68
22. Mani A, Radhakrishnan J, Wang H, Mani A, Mani MA, Nelson-William C, Carew KS, Mane S, Najmabadi H, Wu D, Lifton RP. LRP6 mutation in a family with early coronary disease and metabolic risk factors. Science. 2007; 315:1278-82.
23. Sekiya I, Larson BL, Vuoristo JT, Cui JG, Prockop DJ. Adipogenic differentiation of human adult stem cells from bone marrow stroma (MSCs). J Bone Miner Res 2004;19:256-64
24. Gkastaris K, Goulis DG, Potoupnis M, Anastasilakis AD, Kapetanos G. Obesity, osteoporosis and bone metabolism. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2020 Sep 1;20(3):372-381. PMID: 32877973; PMCID: PMC7493444.
25. Pasco JA, Henry MJ, Kotowicz MA, Collier GR, Ball MJ, Ugoni AM, Nicholson GC. Serum leptin levels are associated with bone mass in nonobese women. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2001; 86(5):1884-7.
26. Yamauchi M, Sugimoto T, Yamaguchi T, Nakaoka D, Kanzawa M, Yano S, Ozuru R, Sugishita T, Chihara K. Plasma leptin concentrations are associated with bone mineral density and the presence of vertebral fractures in postmenopausal women. Clinical endocrinology 2001;55(3):341-7.
27. Foo JP, Polyzos SA, Anastasilakis AD, Chou S, Mantzoros CS. The effect of leptin replacement on parathyroid hormone, RANKL-osteoprotegerin axis, and Wnt inhibitors in young women with hypothalamic amenorrhea. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Nov;99(11):E2252-8. doi: 10.1210/jc.2014-2491. Epub 2014 Aug 22. PMID: 25148234
28. Mpalaris V, Anagnostis P, Anastasilakis AD, Goulis DG, Doumas A, Iakovou I. Serum leptin, adiponectin and ghrelin concentrations in post-menopausal women: Is there an association with bone mineral density? Maturitas. 2016 Jun;88:32-6. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2016.03.004. Epub 2016 Mar 9. PMID: 27105694.
29. Ruhl CE, Everhart JE. Relationship of serum leptin concentration with bone mineral density in the United States population. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2002;17(10):1896-903.
30. Odabasi E, Ozata M, Turan M et al. Plasma leptin concentrations in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Eur J Endocrinol England 2000; 142:170-173.
31. Ootsuka T, Nakanishi A, Tsukamoto I. Increase in osteoclastogenesis in an obese Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima fatty rat model. Molecular medicine reports 2015;12(3):3874-80.
32. Wei S, Kitaura H, Zhou P, Ross P, Teitelbaum SL. IL-1 mediates TNF-α-induce osteoclastogenesis. J Clin Invest 2005;115(2):282-90.
33. Cenci S, Weitzmann MN, Roggia C, Namba N, Novack D, Woodring J, Pacifici R. Estrogen deficiency induces bone loss by enhancing T-cell production of TNF-α. J Clin Invest 2000;106(10):1229-37
34. Yamauchi T, Kamon J, Waki H, Terauchi Y, Kubota N, Hara K, Mori Y, Ide T, Murakami K, Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N, Ezaki O, Akanuma Y, Gavrilova O, Vinson C, Reitman ML, Kagechika H, Shudio K, Yoda M, Nakano Y, Tobe K, Nagai R, Kimura S, Tomita M, Froguel P, Kadowaki T. The fat-derived hormone adiponectin reverses insulin resistance associated with body lipoatrophy and obesity. Nat Med 2001;7:941-6.
35. Jurimae J, Rembel K, Jurimae T, Rehand M. Adiponectin is associated with bone mineral density in perimenopausal women. Horm Metab Res 2005; 37:297-302.
36. Hofbauer LC, Busse B, Eastell R, Ferrari S, Frost M, Müller R, Burden AM, Rivadeneira F, Napoli N, Rauner M. Bone fragility in diabetes: novel concepts and clinical implications. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022 Mar;10(3):207-220.
37. Vachliotis ID, Anastasilakis AD, Goulas A, Goulis DG, Polyzos SA. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and osteoporosis: A potential association with therapeutic implications. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2022 Sep;24(9):1702-1720.
38. Anastasilakis AD, Tsourdi E, Tabacco G, Naciu AM, Napoli N, Vescini F, Palermo A. The Impact of Antiosteoporotic Drugs on Glucose Metabolism and Fracture Risk in Diabetes: Good or Bad News? J Clin Med. 2021 Mar 2;10(5):996.
39. Frost HM. Bone’s mechanostat: a 2003 update. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol. 2003 Dec;275(2):1081-101.
40. Garnero P, Sornay-Rendu E, Claustrat B, Delmas PD. Biochemical markers of bone turnover, endogenous hormones and the risk of fractures in postmenopausal women: the OFELY study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2000;15(8):1526-36
41. Tang H, He JH, Gu HB, Zhu K, Lu CJ, Sun LL, Gui GP, Deng FY, Lei SF. The different correlations between obesity and osteoporosis after adjustment of static mechanical loading from weight and fat free mass. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2021 Sep 1;21(3):351-357. PMID: 34465673; PMCID: PMC8426647.
42. Addison O, Marcus RL, LaStayo PC, Ryan AS. Intermuscular fat: a review of the consequences and causes. International journal of endocrinology. 2014. Article ID 309570.
43. Gerosa L, Lombardi G. Bone-to-Brain: A Round Trip in the Adaptation to Mechanical Stimuli. Front Physiol. 2021 Apr 28;12:623893.
44. Delgado-Calle J, Sato AY, Bellido T. Role and mechanism of action of sclerostin in bone. Bone. 2017 Mar;96:29-37.
45. Galea GL, Lanyon LE, Price JS. Sclerostin’s role in bone’s adaptive response to mechanical loading. Bone. 2017 Mar;96:38-44.
46. Murray CJ, Vos T, Lozano R, et al. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 2012; 380:2197-2223.
47. Mitchell RJ, Lord SR, Harvey LA, Close JC. Obesity and falls in older people: mediating effects of disease, sedentary behavior, mood, pain and medication use. Archives of gerontology and geriatrics 2015;60(1):52-8.
48. Tinetti ME, Speechley M, Ginter SF. Risk factors for falls among elderly persons living in the community. N Engl J Med 1998;319:1701-1707
49. Vincent, HK, Mathews, A. Obesity and mobility in advancing age: mechanisms and interventions to preserve independent mobility. Curr Obes Rep 2013; 2:275-283.
50. Clark, BC, Manini TM. Functional consequences of sarcopenia and dynapenia in the elderly. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2010;13:271-276.
51. GR Neri S, S Oliveira J, B Dario A, M Lima R, Tiedemann A. Does obesity increase the risk and severity of falls in people aged 60 years and older? A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A. 2019.
52. Himes CL, Reynolds SL. Effect of obesity on falls, injury, and disability. J Am Geriatr Soc 2012;60:124-129.
53. Fjeldstad C, Fjeldstad AS, Acree LS, Nickel KJ, Gardner AW. The influence of obesity on falls and quality of life. Dynamic Medicine 2008;7(1):4
54. King CM, Hamilton, GA, Cobb M, Carpenter D, Ford LA. Association between ankle fractures and obesity. J Foot Ankle Surg 2012;51:543-547.
55. Beck TJ, Petit MA, Wu G, LeBoff MS, Cauley JA, Chen Z. Does obesity really make the femur stronger? BMD, geometry, and fracture incidence in the Women’s Health Initiative-observational study. J Bone Miner Res 2009; 24:1369-1379.
56. Prieto-Alhambra D, Premaor MO, Fina Aviles F, Hermosilla E, Martinez-Laguna D, Carbonell-Abella C, et al. The association between fracture and obesity is site dependent: a population-based study in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 2012;27:294-300.
57. Pirro M, Fabbriciani G, Leli C, Callarelli L, Manfredelli MR, Fioroni C, et al. High weight or body mass index increase the risk of vertebral fractures in postmenopausal osteoporotic women. J Bone Miner Metab 2010; 28:88-93.
58. Premaor MO, Ensrud K, Lui L, Parker RA, Cauley J, Hillier TA, et al. Risk factors for nonvertebral fracture in obese older women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96:2414-2421.
59. Bouxsein ML, Szulc P, Munoz F, Thrall E, Sornay Rendu E, Delmas PD. Contribution of trochanteric soft tissues to fall force estimates, the factor of risk, and prediction of hip fracture risk. J Bone Miner Res 2007;22:825-831.
60. Mignardot JB, Olivier I, Promayon E, Nougier V. Obesity impact on the attentional cost for controlling posture. PloS One 2010;5:e14387
2. Kanis JA, Melton III LJ, Christiansen C, Johnston CC, Khaltaev N. The diagnosis of osteoporosis. Journal of bone and mineral research. 1994;9(8):1137–41
3. World Health Organization. Assessment of osteoporosis at the primary health care level:summary report of a WHO Scientific Group. World Health Organization. 2007
4. Osteoporosis or Low Bone Mass in Older Adults: United States, 2017–2018 Neda Sarafrazi, Ph.D., Edwina A. Wambogo, Ph.D., M.S., M.P.H., R.D., and John A. Shepherd, Ph.D., NCHS Data Brief ,No. 405, March 2021
5. US Department of Health and Human Services. Bone Health and Osteoporosis: A Report of the Surgeon General; US Department of Health and Human Services: Rockville, MD, USA, 2004.
6. World Health Organization Global. Health Observatory, Obesity:situation and trends. 2017
7. Obesity and Overweight. Available online: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight
8. European Association for the Study of Obesity. Facts &Statistics:Definitions of overweight and obese. 2017
9. Samuel L, Borrell LN. The effect of body mass index on optimal vitamin D status in U.S. adults: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2006. Ann Epidemiol 2013;23:409-414
10. Walsh JS, Evans AL, Bowles S et al. Free 25-hydroxyvitamin D is low in obesity, but there are no adverse associations with bone health. Am J Clin Nutr 2016;103:1465-1471.
11. Macdonald HM, Mavroeidi A, Barr RJ, Black AJ, Fraser WD, Reid DM. Vitamin D status in postmenopausal women living at higher latitudes in the UK in relation to bone health, overweight, sunlight exposure and dietary vitamin D. Bone 2008;42(5):996-1003.
12. Ardawi MS, Qari MH, Rouzi AA, Maimani AA, Raddadi RM. Vitamin D status in relation to obesity, bone mineral density, bone turnover markers and vitamin D receptor genotypes in healthy Saudi pre-and postmenopausal women. Osteoporosis international 2011;22(2):463-75
13. Rajakumar K, Fernstrom JD, Holick MF, Janosky JE, Greenspan SL. Vitamin D status and response to vitamin D3 in obese vs. non-obese African American Children. Obesity 2008;16(1):90-5.
14. Wortsman J, Matsuoka LY, Chen TC, Lu Z, Holick MF. Decreased bioavailability of vitamin D in obesity. The American journal of clinical nutrition 2000;72(3):690-3.
15. Evans AL, Paggiosi MA, Eastell R, Walsh JS. Bone density, microstructure and strength in obese and normal weight men and women in younger and older adulthood. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2015;30(5):920-8
16. Leeners B, Geary N, Τobler P, Asarian L. Ovarian hormones and obesity. Human Reproduction Update 2017;23(3):300-321.
17. Ionova-Martin SS, Do SH, Barth HD, Szadkowska M, Porter AE, Ager III JW, Ager Jr JW, Alliston T, Vaisse C, Ritchie RO. Reduced size-independent mechanical properties of cortical bone in high-fat diet-induced obesity. Bone 2010;46(1):217-25
18. Halade GV, El Jamali A, Williams PJ, Fajardo RJ, Fernandes G. Obesity-mediated inflammatory microenvironment stimulates osteoclastogenesis and bone loss in mice. Experimental gerontology. 2011 Jan 1;46(1):43-52.
19. Sekiya I, Larson BL, Vuoristo JT, Cui JG, Prockop DJ. Adipogenic differentiation of human adult stem cells from bone marrow stroma (MSCs). J Bone Miner Res 2004;19:256-64.
20. Schilling T, Kuffner R, Klein-Hitpass L, Zimmer R, Jakob F, Schutze N. Microarray analyses of transdifferentiated mesenchymal stem cells. J Cell Biochem 2008; 103:413-33
21. Menagh PJ, Turner RT, Jump DB, Wong CP, Lowry MB, Yakar S, Rosen CJ, Iwaniec UT. Growth hormone regulates the balance between bone formation and bone marrow adiposity. J Bone Miner Res 2010;25:757-68
22. Mani A, Radhakrishnan J, Wang H, Mani A, Mani MA, Nelson-William C, Carew KS, Mane S, Najmabadi H, Wu D, Lifton RP. LRP6 mutation in a family with early coronary disease and metabolic risk factors. Science. 2007; 315:1278-82.
23. Sekiya I, Larson BL, Vuoristo JT, Cui JG, Prockop DJ. Adipogenic differentiation of human adult stem cells from bone marrow stroma (MSCs). J Bone Miner Res 2004;19:256-64
24. Gkastaris K, Goulis DG, Potoupnis M, Anastasilakis AD, Kapetanos G. Obesity, osteoporosis and bone metabolism. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2020 Sep 1;20(3):372-381. PMID: 32877973; PMCID: PMC7493444.
25. Pasco JA, Henry MJ, Kotowicz MA, Collier GR, Ball MJ, Ugoni AM, Nicholson GC. Serum leptin levels are associated with bone mass in nonobese women. The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 2001; 86(5):1884-7.
26. Yamauchi M, Sugimoto T, Yamaguchi T, Nakaoka D, Kanzawa M, Yano S, Ozuru R, Sugishita T, Chihara K. Plasma leptin concentrations are associated with bone mineral density and the presence of vertebral fractures in postmenopausal women. Clinical endocrinology 2001;55(3):341-7.
27. Foo JP, Polyzos SA, Anastasilakis AD, Chou S, Mantzoros CS. The effect of leptin replacement on parathyroid hormone, RANKL-osteoprotegerin axis, and Wnt inhibitors in young women with hypothalamic amenorrhea. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2014 Nov;99(11):E2252-8. doi: 10.1210/jc.2014-2491. Epub 2014 Aug 22. PMID: 25148234
28. Mpalaris V, Anagnostis P, Anastasilakis AD, Goulis DG, Doumas A, Iakovou I. Serum leptin, adiponectin and ghrelin concentrations in post-menopausal women: Is there an association with bone mineral density? Maturitas. 2016 Jun;88:32-6. doi: 10.1016/j.maturitas.2016.03.004. Epub 2016 Mar 9. PMID: 27105694.
29. Ruhl CE, Everhart JE. Relationship of serum leptin concentration with bone mineral density in the United States population. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2002;17(10):1896-903.
30. Odabasi E, Ozata M, Turan M et al. Plasma leptin concentrations in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Eur J Endocrinol England 2000; 142:170-173.
31. Ootsuka T, Nakanishi A, Tsukamoto I. Increase in osteoclastogenesis in an obese Otsuka Long-Evans Tokushima fatty rat model. Molecular medicine reports 2015;12(3):3874-80.
32. Wei S, Kitaura H, Zhou P, Ross P, Teitelbaum SL. IL-1 mediates TNF-α-induce osteoclastogenesis. J Clin Invest 2005;115(2):282-90.
33. Cenci S, Weitzmann MN, Roggia C, Namba N, Novack D, Woodring J, Pacifici R. Estrogen deficiency induces bone loss by enhancing T-cell production of TNF-α. J Clin Invest 2000;106(10):1229-37
34. Yamauchi T, Kamon J, Waki H, Terauchi Y, Kubota N, Hara K, Mori Y, Ide T, Murakami K, Tsuboyama-Kasaoka N, Ezaki O, Akanuma Y, Gavrilova O, Vinson C, Reitman ML, Kagechika H, Shudio K, Yoda M, Nakano Y, Tobe K, Nagai R, Kimura S, Tomita M, Froguel P, Kadowaki T. The fat-derived hormone adiponectin reverses insulin resistance associated with body lipoatrophy and obesity. Nat Med 2001;7:941-6.
35. Jurimae J, Rembel K, Jurimae T, Rehand M. Adiponectin is associated with bone mineral density in perimenopausal women. Horm Metab Res 2005; 37:297-302.
36. Hofbauer LC, Busse B, Eastell R, Ferrari S, Frost M, Müller R, Burden AM, Rivadeneira F, Napoli N, Rauner M. Bone fragility in diabetes: novel concepts and clinical implications. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2022 Mar;10(3):207-220.
37. Vachliotis ID, Anastasilakis AD, Goulas A, Goulis DG, Polyzos SA. Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and osteoporosis: A potential association with therapeutic implications. Diabetes Obes Metab. 2022 Sep;24(9):1702-1720.
38. Anastasilakis AD, Tsourdi E, Tabacco G, Naciu AM, Napoli N, Vescini F, Palermo A. The Impact of Antiosteoporotic Drugs on Glucose Metabolism and Fracture Risk in Diabetes: Good or Bad News? J Clin Med. 2021 Mar 2;10(5):996.
39. Frost HM. Bone’s mechanostat: a 2003 update. Anat Rec A Discov Mol Cell Evol Biol. 2003 Dec;275(2):1081-101.
40. Garnero P, Sornay-Rendu E, Claustrat B, Delmas PD. Biochemical markers of bone turnover, endogenous hormones and the risk of fractures in postmenopausal women: the OFELY study. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research 2000;15(8):1526-36
41. Tang H, He JH, Gu HB, Zhu K, Lu CJ, Sun LL, Gui GP, Deng FY, Lei SF. The different correlations between obesity and osteoporosis after adjustment of static mechanical loading from weight and fat free mass. J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2021 Sep 1;21(3):351-357. PMID: 34465673; PMCID: PMC8426647.
42. Addison O, Marcus RL, LaStayo PC, Ryan AS. Intermuscular fat: a review of the consequences and causes. International journal of endocrinology. 2014. Article ID 309570.
43. Gerosa L, Lombardi G. Bone-to-Brain: A Round Trip in the Adaptation to Mechanical Stimuli. Front Physiol. 2021 Apr 28;12:623893.
44. Delgado-Calle J, Sato AY, Bellido T. Role and mechanism of action of sclerostin in bone. Bone. 2017 Mar;96:29-37.
45. Galea GL, Lanyon LE, Price JS. Sclerostin’s role in bone’s adaptive response to mechanical loading. Bone. 2017 Mar;96:38-44.
46. Murray CJ, Vos T, Lozano R, et al. Disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) for 291 diseases and injuries in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 2012; 380:2197-2223.
47. Mitchell RJ, Lord SR, Harvey LA, Close JC. Obesity and falls in older people: mediating effects of disease, sedentary behavior, mood, pain and medication use. Archives of gerontology and geriatrics 2015;60(1):52-8.
48. Tinetti ME, Speechley M, Ginter SF. Risk factors for falls among elderly persons living in the community. N Engl J Med 1998;319:1701-1707
49. Vincent, HK, Mathews, A. Obesity and mobility in advancing age: mechanisms and interventions to preserve independent mobility. Curr Obes Rep 2013; 2:275-283.
50. Clark, BC, Manini TM. Functional consequences of sarcopenia and dynapenia in the elderly. Curr Opin Clin Nutr Metab Care 2010;13:271-276.
51. GR Neri S, S Oliveira J, B Dario A, M Lima R, Tiedemann A. Does obesity increase the risk and severity of falls in people aged 60 years and older? A systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. The Journals of Gerontology: Series A. 2019.
52. Himes CL, Reynolds SL. Effect of obesity on falls, injury, and disability. J Am Geriatr Soc 2012;60:124-129.
53. Fjeldstad C, Fjeldstad AS, Acree LS, Nickel KJ, Gardner AW. The influence of obesity on falls and quality of life. Dynamic Medicine 2008;7(1):4
54. King CM, Hamilton, GA, Cobb M, Carpenter D, Ford LA. Association between ankle fractures and obesity. J Foot Ankle Surg 2012;51:543-547.
55. Beck TJ, Petit MA, Wu G, LeBoff MS, Cauley JA, Chen Z. Does obesity really make the femur stronger? BMD, geometry, and fracture incidence in the Women’s Health Initiative-observational study. J Bone Miner Res 2009; 24:1369-1379.
56. Prieto-Alhambra D, Premaor MO, Fina Aviles F, Hermosilla E, Martinez-Laguna D, Carbonell-Abella C, et al. The association between fracture and obesity is site dependent: a population-based study in postmenopausal women. J Bone Miner Res 2012;27:294-300.
57. Pirro M, Fabbriciani G, Leli C, Callarelli L, Manfredelli MR, Fioroni C, et al. High weight or body mass index increase the risk of vertebral fractures in postmenopausal osteoporotic women. J Bone Miner Metab 2010; 28:88-93.
58. Premaor MO, Ensrud K, Lui L, Parker RA, Cauley J, Hillier TA, et al. Risk factors for nonvertebral fracture in obese older women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2011; 96:2414-2421.
59. Bouxsein ML, Szulc P, Munoz F, Thrall E, Sornay Rendu E, Delmas PD. Contribution of trochanteric soft tissues to fall force estimates, the factor of risk, and prediction of hip fracture risk. J Bone Miner Res 2007;22:825-831.
60. Mignardot JB, Olivier I, Promayon E, Nougier V. Obesity impact on the attentional cost for controlling posture. PloS One 2010;5:e14387
Published
2023-12-28
Section
Review
Copyright (c) 2023 Acta Orthopaedica Et Traumatologica Hellenica
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
